The K2-3 System Revisited: Testing Photoevaporation and Core-powered Mass Loss with Three Small Planets Spanning the Radius Valley

November 2022 • 2022AJ....164..172D

Authors • Diamond-Lowe, Hannah • Kreidberg, Laura • Harman, C. E. • Kempton, Eliza M. -R. • Rogers, Leslie A. • Joyce, Simon R. G. • Eastman, Jason D. • King, George W. • Kopparapu, Ravi • Youngblood, Allison • Kosiarek, Molly R. • Livingston, John H. • Hardegree-Ullman, Kevin K. • Crossfield, Ian J. M.

Abstract • Multiplanet systems orbiting M dwarfs provide valuable tests of theories of small-planet formation and evolution. K2-3 is an early M dwarf hosting three small exoplanets (1.5-2.0 R _⊕) at distances of 0.07-0.20 au. We measure the high-energy spectrum of K2-3 with HST/COS and XMM-Newton and use empirically driven estimates of Lyα and extreme-ultraviolet flux. We use EXOFASTv2 to jointly fit radial velocity, transit, and spectral energy distribution data. This constrains the K2-3 planet radii to 4% uncertainty and the masses of K2-3b and c to 13% and 30%, respectively; K2-3d is not detected in radial velocity measurements. K2-3b and c are consistent with rocky cores surrounded by solar composition envelopes (mass fractions of ${0.36}_{-0.11}^{+0.14} \% $ and ${0.07}_{-0.05}^{+0.09} \% $ ), H₂O envelopes ( ${55}_{-12}^{+14} \% $ and ${16}_{-10}^{+17} \% $ ), or a mixture of both. However, based on the high-energy output and estimated age of K2-3, it is unlikely that K2-3b and c retain solar composition atmospheres. We pass the planet parameters and high-energy stellar spectrum to atmospheric models. Dialing the high-energy spectrum up and down by a factor of 10 produces significant changes in trace molecule abundances, but not at a level detectable with transmission spectroscopy. Though the K2-3 planets span the small-planet radius valley, the observed system architecture cannot be readily explained by photoevaporation or core-powered mass loss. We instead propose that (1) the K2-3 planets are all volatile-rich, with K2-3d having a lower density than typical of super-Earths, and/or (2) the K2-3 planet architecture results from stochastic processes such as planet formation, planet migration, and impact erosion.

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• PDF https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-3881/ac7807/pdf
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• ELECTR https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-3881/ac7807